A cocktail of resources and activities

 Proposal for Early Modern Foreign Language Teachers

Key Themes on Intercultural Awareness

for Early Modern Foreign Languages Teaching

Anthony G.Green and Anastasia-Sissy Gika

Introducing the issues

Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making inadvertent mistakes which cause offence, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speakers (Hofstede 1991).  Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation are correct.  These mistakes are cultural errors and occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, register and manner to use for effective communication in that particular situation.  This is a matter of cultural knowledge and awareness (Oksaar 1992; Stern 1992).

1. Language and culture

This chapter draws attention to learning the importance of knowing when, where and how to use the foreign language in its own 'native' context (Hymes 1972; Kramsch 1993: 34).  Developing this kind of cultural knowledge may also have positive implications for encouraging intercultural awareness, understanding and appreciation as will be discussed below.  At the centre of this is the general issue of knowing what culture is and understanding how culture works.

Culture is social and is essentially a product of collective action.  While each person thinks, speaks and acts as an individual, what the person says and does is based on skills and knowledge which have been acquired or learned.  This knowledge is not innate.  These skills are social and not individual because to produce effective communication requires co-operation between people.  The meanings any speaker intends to convey not only require competent listeners who have learned how to interpret the words being made as spoken language, not just as sounds, but also understand that the gestures which accompany the words, are part of the body language, not just physical movements.  Communication is a joint activity which works only when participants can correctly assume shared meanings for presentation and for reception of words and gestures.  Acquiring shared cultural understandings is the basis for cultural competencies and may be associated with the development of more general cultural awareness.

2.  Cultural competencies and cultural awareness

Human beings first spontaneously develop rudimentary cultural awareness in childhood.  This involves acquiring the abilities to conduct themselves skilfully in each of their daily activities and they continue to build upon these capacities throughout their lives.  This is the process of acquisition and refinement of cultural competencies (Landis & Bhagat, 1996).

Foreign language teaching provides an opportunity to learn about culture itself (Byram & Zarate, 1994; Kramsch, Cam & Murphy-Lejeune, 1996; Valdes 1986).  This involves education for cultural awareness.  It means that the learners of a foreign language are required to take an interest in the specifics of how a particular culture, or way of life, works in relation to the use of the language being learnt.  The full application of this theme goes far beyond the language learning class.  It is part of every aspect of the curriculum, indeed, of every aspect of life that youngsters are likely to encounter.

Raising cultural awareness

Academic study of culture and cultural awareness is the province of social disciplines such as Sociology, Anthropology, Ethnography and, specifically in relation to language acquisition and use, in Applied Linguistics (sociolinguistics and psycho-linguistics).

1. Definitions and considerations

'Culture' is the term which refers to what any specific group of people do which is distinctive and gives them their particular identity (Williams 1976).  This makes them recognisable to themselves and to other people.  It is what is distinctive about their ideas, their social rules, the perceptions and conceptions which they carry around with them which inform them of what is normal and appropriate to do in any particular situation.  It is these ideas which make the contexts of their lives and behaviour 'meaningful' to themselves.  It is 'their' culture.  Everything, whether material objects, natural phenomena or patterns of behaviour and social institutions (e.g. family life, schooling, religious ritual etc.) has a meaning, and usually more than one meaning.  Spoken and written forms of language are the primary ways of communicating, developing and changing such meanings and at the same time of expressing culture.

What should be clear is that application of the ten-n 'culture' has a very wide focus.  It refers to all aspects of human activity, including more than just those things which are invested with special value.  High-culture and elite culture, often referred to as culture with a capital "C", are generally associated with such special forms of artistic expression of important values and human aspirations through music, painting, literature, architecture, etc. (Williams 1965: 57).  But culture also includes the ordinary, mundane, profane world of meanings lived by each of us from day to day and even in our dreams (de Jong 1996: 26).  This is culture with a small "c".

2.  Cultural software

Culture is rather like a kind of 'software' human beings acquire for processing meaning (Hofstede 1991).  In contrast to the instinctual 'hardware' we are born with which supplies the basic potential built into each human being to do 'cultural work', cultural software can change and be changed.  It is amenable to 're-formatting', though this is rarely a straightforward process.  A conscious effort is needed to understand and learn about culture and cultural change, even when it concerns our own culture.  This is important as we come to appreciate that cultures change, generally by relatively slow degrees, mostly through incremental developments.  In addition, cultural changes occur as much in relation to outcomes which are unintentional as those which are planned and aimed at.

Self-conscious understanding of our own 'software', what we call 'Cultural Reflexivity' (see below), is not an automatic or unproblematic process, either.  Partly, this is because so much of our cultural knowledge resides in habits rather than being fully conscious processes.  In addition, we may not always be reliable reporters on our own culture, particularly when precious issues of value and power are at stake.  This is one of the reasons why the outcomes of deliberate planning for cultural change is notoriously difficult to predict or carry out, despite the best efforts of reforming politicians, administrators and advertising agencies.

 3. Cultural variation

Cultures are made of patterns of meanings and actions which are complex, dynamic and ever­changing (Leach 1982: 43).  Cultures vary from group to group and all cultures have sub­cultures and even counter-cultures.  The former are smaller patterns of human action and identification within the wider form which share some of the values of the wider society, but also have a distinctive life-style.  For instance, old people, youngsters or occupational participants such as military, professional musicians, etc., may participate in sub-cultures.  Counter-cultures are patterns associated with resistance to the dominant and mainstream life­styles, beliefs and power structures, for example environmental protesters, political movements, etc.  Where different cultural groups meet and interact intercultural dynamics are set in motion.  The potential for intercultural awareness arises at these points, sometimes with positive and at other times with negative impact.  It might promote acceptance, closeness and understanding, but it might promote intercultural tensions and problems.  Recognition of cultural differences and identities between 'us' and 'them' may be accompanied by feelings of discomfort, fear even, which may lead to reinforcement of prejudices and intolerance.

4. Appreciation of cultural dynamics

The acquisition of the use of a particular language is perhaps the most important cultural achievement the child makes.  It takes time to do this.  The skills are acquired in an extended experience of socialisation most of which is accomplished informally and open-endedly during infancy and childhood.  Learning to participate within a foreign culture and to appreciate its dynamics is an extended and open-ended process, too.

The foreign language learner has the opportunity to consciously learn about the culture associated with the foreign language being learned.  At the same time they may also learn about their own 'native' culture by looking at themselves and so gaining insights concerning themselves.  This is 'cultural reflexivity' (Byram 1989; Green 1996).  Further to this, there is the possibility of a process of positive feedback with respect to foreign language learning.  When this is developing well a benign circle of foreign language/cultural learning feeds back into deepening reflexive awareness of the native culture and language.  In turn this encourages further development of interest in the foreign language and culture and more broadly supports confidence in exploring cultural differences and things that are 'other'.

5. Self Awareness and cultural reflexivity

Transcending the self-centredness of infancy and early childhood requires a process of maturation.  Children slowly begin to turn their selves into objects to themselves.  As they develop they acquire the capacities to recognise how they are seen by others and recognising what is expected of themselves.  This is the basis of self-recognition and provides senses of who they are and their place in their own social and cultural environments.  Most of the time this cultural knowledge is developed and exercised in a habitual and preconscious way.  However, learning a foreign language provides many opportunities to bring these preconscious skills and knowledge to consciousness.  This helps in recognising that these habits are built on shared taken-for-granted assumptions.  This connects to developing cultural self-awareness and reflexivity.

Cultural self-awareness requires paying specific attention to comparing and contrasting similarities and differences between the collective sense of 'ourselves' and of 'others'.  This capacity for self-awareness is termed 'Cultural Reflexivity' and is built on awareness of ourselves and the ways we do things in relation to foreigners and the ways they do things.  Development of cultural reflexivity may, though not necessarily, occur when there is unavoidable recognition of differences and similarities between what 'we' do and what 'they', members of another group, take-for-granted as the normal things to do (Barthe 1969).  Such occasions, while always 'lnteresting', may not always be comfortable and may even be painful and fearful.  In the primary education classroom we tend, of course, to make such occasions 'fun'.  The authentic experience of coping in another culture may be a more challenging kind of fun.

Promoting interculturality

The capacity to recognise and handle new cultural situations productively with respect to differences and similarities is based upon intercultural awareness and sensitivity.  Learning to use a foreign language in its native context opens up the possibility for reflection on one's own ways of doing things and promotes interculturality.

1. Intercultural sensitization

We have the chance to see that these things we may have taken-for-granted and do as a matter of habit, are not timeless, universal or 'natural'.  Nor are they essentially right, but simply familiar and customary in contrast to what others do in their own particular forms of familiar and customary ways-of-life.  For this to be successful the learner needs sufficient knowledge to make informed decisions about how to act within the foreign culture.  The language learner also needs personal flexibility and sensitization to cope respectfully towards that culture's ways of doing things.  Developing these capacities and skills takes a long time.

2. The challenge of multiple perspectives and cultural objectivity

Human beings, particularly when young but also continuing throughout life, automatically become emotionally attached to and identify with what they know and what they are familiar with.  Therefore, there is a challenge to becoming interculturally reflexive.  Partly this is because intercultural awareness involves appreciating that we invest things not just with meanings but understanding that these meanings have values.  In addition, these values may be questioned.  Such awareness may require re-assessing the meanings we attribute to anything as we come to appreciate them more 'objectively' (Byram & Esarte-Sarries 1991: 13; Seelye & Wasilewski, 1996).

An important ingredient in this process involves being prepared to see ourselves as others may see us, not just as we see ourselves.  Another is becoming able to recognise our own prejudices, the things we take for granted (see Xenophobia, below).  Openness to explore the possibility of complex and multiple perspectives, establishes the basis for objectivity, in which the 'same' thing may appear differently.  This includes, of course, how we see ourselves, both individually and collectively.  Processes of developing such awareness of culture are also likely to be connected with strengthening the appreciation of the multiple forms of culture in one's own native context, as well as becoming more confident about practising objectivity with respect to ourselves.  Seeing the other's point of view, being prepared to keep an open mind and to 'agree to differ', are valuable achievements and which make important contributions to civility and equity.  Nor do they necessarily contradict the positive values of taking pride in one's own ethnicity and cultural heritage.  While central to 'European Awareness', for instance, these precepts are necessary ingredients for the development of world citizenship in the fast changing new global order (Harrison 1990).

3.  The issue of xenophobia

The residual selfishness of egoism is never fully overcome in human maturation and the collective egoism of xenophobia, at least in mild forms, is also unlikely to be something a cultural formation fully grows out of.  It is a familiar experience to most people during the course of their lives, when confronted with the unfamiliar for this to be accompanied by feelings of discomfort, perhaps even fear and rejection.  Most societies practise more or less overt forms of inclusion and exclusion, of designating in- and out-groups.  Inclusion, while accompanied by the acceptance, perhaps celebration of difference needs constant attention to make it a continuing reality.  Foreign languages' education, including primary level learning, may play a positive role in promoting intercultural tolerance and positive curiosity.  Partly, this should occur through treating foreign language learning as an opportunity for practising cultural reflexivity and intercultural awareness.  However, we cannot assume that this will happen automatically (Leets & Giles 1993).  It requires specific and careful attention.

Concluding remarks

We may summarise the main points and indicate our conclusions in the following way.  Our native culture is learned and is not in-brn.  A very great deal of cultural action occurs normally as a matter of habit at the preconscious level.  Culture is generally only available to each of us Ion reflection'.  However, the process of cultural reflection is particularly likely to be set in motion when what is familiar and normal to us is rendered'strange'by being seen and done in a different way.  This may happen in a more challenge way when the learner makes direct contact with another culture and experiences uncertainty about what is the appropriate way to behave, not just what to say but how to say what they need to say.  The more knowledgeable and skilled human beings become, the more competent they are at using cultural knowledge as a resource both self-consciously and strategically on such occasions (Cosset, More & Karate 1997).

Emerging issues for early MFLT and intercultural education

In conclusion, each aspect of the above discussion may be reformulated as educational objectives and processes in early foreign languages education.  They contribute to developing in youngsters (and teachers, too) the appreciation of the cultural contextual aspects of foreign languages' usage referred to in the Guidelines in this publication.  They also connect to more general cross-curriculum aspects of primary education.  These are concerned with developing awareness and sensitivity to the variety of social and cultural forms youngsters are likely to encounter during the course of their lives.  In primary education we can only expect preparatory and rudimentary development of Intercultural Awareness.  Nevertheless, such educational work may make a distinctive contribution to the development of firm foundations for living in multicultural situations.

References

Barth, F (ed.), 1969, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, Allen and Unwin, London.

Byram, M., 1989, Cultural St dies i Foreign ng age Education, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Byram, M. & Esarte-Sairries, V., 1991, Investigating Cultural Studies in Foreign Language Teaching,.  Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Byram, M. & Zarate, G., 1994, Definitions, objectives and evaluation of socio-cultural  coimpetence, Strasbourg: Council of Europe CC-LANG (94) 1.

Coste, D.,         Moore, D. & Zarate, G., 1997, PIurilingual and pluricultural competence,

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Glka, A. S.        & Green, A.G., 1998, "Teachers' Guidelines for the Development of Intercultural Work in Early Modern Foreign Language Education ", in this publication, section 1

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Harrison, B., (ed.), 1990 Culture in the Language Classroom, ELT Documents 132, London: Modem English Publication

Hofstede, G., 1991, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, London: McGraw Hill

Hymes, D., 1972, "Introduction" to Cazden, C., John, V.P. and Hymes, D., (eds.), Functions of Language in the Classroom, New York: Teachers College Press.  Hymes, D., 1974, Foundations i Sociolinguistics: A Ethnographic Approach, Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press

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Seelye, N. & Wasilewski.  J.H., 1996, Between CuItures: Developing Self-Identity in a World of Diversity , Lincolnwood IL: National Textbook

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